INTRODUCTION

Human emotions

Understanding and studying human emotions has attracted experts throughout the history of mankind. Freud refers to the pivotal role of human emotions as an integral part of a growing baby’s experience in some of the most fundamental concepts that he described. Oedipal Complex and Ambivalence both include interplays of emotions ( Freud, 1924). Darwin studied emotions across various cultures of the world, not only in humans but in animals too. His book on this subject is titled `The expression of the emotions in man and animals´ ( Darwin, 1872). Eckman who is a psychologist and anthropologist developed an atlas of human emotions. He identified 10,000 facial expressions that can express up to 3,000 different kinds of emotions ( Ekman, 2018 ). He states that words are representations of emotions, but not the emotions themselves. According to him, `Emotion is a process, a particular kind of automatic appraisal influenced by our evolutionary and personal past, in which we sense that something important to our welfare is occurring, and a set of physiological changes and emotional behaviours begin to deal with the situation´ ( Ekman, 2004). Eckman identified six basic emotions including fear, anger, joy, sadness, disgust, and surprise. Hatred is not one of them.

Definition of hatred

Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines hatred as `extreme dislike or disgust, ill will or resentment that is usually mutual and as prejudiced hostility or animosity´. The word is well-known to speakers of the English language. It is commonly used in day-to-day interactions and in a variety of informal meanings. For example, hatred may be used interchangeably to express negative emotions such as disgust or resentment or dislike or disrespect etc. Expressions like love-hate are well known both in verbal and written communications. Few hate-related terms have started receiving importance following some significant events around the globe. For example, hate-crime, hate-group, group-hate, hatemonger, hate-speech, hate-mail, hate-rally, racial-hate, hate-campaign, or collective-hate etc. Hatred is used as noun. Hate is used as both verb and noun. Hateful is adjective. Hating is verb. 

Hatred in Philosophy

Brogaard (2020) describes in her book, titled `Hatred, Understanding Our Most Dangerous Emotion´ that all emotions have some characteristic attached to them sometimes also called their valence. Hatred is one with a negative valence. She describes some other important concepts to elaborate on hatred. `Intentionality´ is the outward directedness of our mental state. `Intentionality´ separates emotions from moods, the latter are not about any particular thing or event. For example, depression may be experienced by those suffering from mood disorders without any reason. Emotions have a focus of concern (or simply called `focus´), i.e., something that has triggered the emotion. For example, it can be triggered in response to an action or verbal expression. Emotions may also have a target though this may not always be the case. However, hatred has both. `Emotional blaming´ involves accusing others, holding them responsible for their actions or foreseeable consequences of their actions. However, in the case of hatred, blame is above and beyond the observer’s perception of someone’s guilt. How an observer’s mind perceives something then leads to a relationship impairing attitude in them. In the case of hatred, the generation of relationship impairment is also accompanied with a kind of inner protest. The blame, thus, may manifest as ‘disrespect’ for the one who is hated because they performed the act that is disapproved. Brogaard identifies three further types of disrespect including critical disrespect, dehumanising disrespect, and hubris. When blame involves dehumanising disrespect, it tends to focus on who one is, rather than what one has done. She calls this human tendency of dehumanising blame for their flawed character as condemnation. To condemn someone for their flawed character is to disrespect them for cultivating or failing to unlearn the corresponding bad habits. Contempt creates an irreparable power imbalance and hate is also tied to fear or reprehension. Hate is a complex emotion, built out of negative emotions: resentment, condemnation, and reprehension. Disrespect is the component that unites antagonistic emotions such as anger, resentment, indignation, envy, blame, contempt and hate.

Hatred in Neurology

There are several attempts done to understand the neurological aspects of hatred. For example, Zeki and Romaya carried out functional MRI studies to examine the neurological reactions inside the brains of the participants when they viewed the images of the people who they hated ( Zeki and Romaya, 2008). The authors reported that certain parts of the brain including the amygdala and the premotor cortex showed increased activity when people watched these images. The authors concluded that, there is a unique pattern of activity in the brain in the context of hate, distinct from the pattern of activity that correlates with romantic love.

Hatred in Neurodevelopment

From the neurodevelopmental perspective when we encounter a stimulus then the hippocampal system usually is the first responder that may draw information from neocortical system to help us understand the meaning of the stimulus. If the stimulus is repeated, then it may become part of general knowledge based neocortical system permanently ( Bodenhausen et al., 2003). This system enables us to navigate through reality quickly without paying much attention to each stimulus repeatedly. He describes that these schemas help us make sense of unspecified and unknown aspects of stimuli or situations. Although this system offers some flexibility, it is not perfect and is prone to errors whilst analysing information. For example, how a person appreciates stereotypes can be considered as an error in interpretation of social information in these schemas. The stereotypes get embedded into the neocortical system and are highly resistant to change. Once the stereotypes get incorporated into a person’s world view then several cognitive errors can make it persistent. Errors in judgment can sometimes happen just by automatic activation of schemas.

Hatred in Sociology

Culture is sometimes called `the personality of a society´. Society teaches its norms to individuals living within them and these differ across cultures. Social identity theory emanates from social cognition tradition (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973). Social cognition approaches rely on the observations that the human mind is not a perfect information processing unit. The human mind has an innate tendency to utilize shortcuts to categorize information quickly and efficiently from our social worlds and draw conclusions from what we perceive. These shortcuts, or mental heuristics, allow for faster processing of information, but they also make us susceptible to a wide array of poor judgments. Some authorities believe that social categorisation of individuals, such as gender and ethnicity, would not gain importance unless they are internalised (Tajfel et al., 1979). An individual may internalise a variety of social identities that may manifest in different kind of encounters that a person comes across in life. Availability heuristic as described by Tversky and Kahneman also influences people´s tendancy to overestimate certain classes of events. When memory of certain events is available readily, its prevalence is overestimated (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973). Some of the social influences that may contribute to development of hatred include prejudice ( Taylor and Moghaddam 1994), intergroup aggression ( Sherif, 1937), construction of social norms ( Sherif, 1937), the power of social roles ( Zimbardo et al, 1974), bystander apathy ( Latan and Darley, 1968), obedience to authority ( Milgram, 1965) and conformity ( Asch, 19513). `In-group´ is a term used to describe a social group to which a person psychologically identifies with. On the contrary, `out-group´ is a social group with which an individual does not identify with. According to Harrington, the social scientists consider intergroup hostility, aggressive behaviour, prejudice, and ethnocentrism as the major factors that lead to the development of hatred in a group ( Harrington, 2004).

Hatred in Psychology

Staub (2005) defines hatred as a strong negative feeling against the object that is hated. The hater sees the object of their hatred as bad, immoral, dangerous, or all this together. According to him, a triangle of three components leads to development of hatred. They include negation of intimacy (distancing from object of hatred), presence of passions (for example intense anger) and the cognitions of diminution and devaluation through contempt for targeted group. The hater considers contempt towards target group and considers them barely human or even may consider them inhuman. Hatred then leads to acts of intense violence, for example, terrorism, massacres, and genocides ( Sternberg, 2005). Based on this model Sternberg outlined seven types of hatred that consist of components of these three factors in various combinations. `Accepted hatred´ is one in which intimacy is denied but no harm is done. `Hot hatred´ is dominated by intense feeling of hatred that may result in escape or attack. `Cold hatred´ is dominated by feelings of devaluation. `Burning hatred´ is one in which a group is inferiorised and it is felt that something needs to be done about this group. In `simmering hatred´ an individual is disliked forever, intimacy is denied, and commitment is devalued. In `furious hatred´ passion and devaluation of commitment is observed. And `all-embracing hatred’ is dominated by denial of intimacy, devaluation of commitment and passion often resulting in a need to annihilate the one that is hated. Navarro et al (2013) reported that the victim of hatred is devaluated intentionally with increasing intensity to a degree that they lose all human or moral considerations in the eyes of the hater. As the feeling of hatred is intensified the hater can take steps to harm or even eliminate the object that is hated. To support the ideology of hatred, relevant situations are created, and even facts are distorted to spread and promote hatred. In the cognitive behavioural model, it is understood that thoughts influence feelings and emotions that in turn influence behaviours (Beck, 1991). The following cognitions are reported to contribute to the generation of hatred including: overgeneralisation i.e., generalising a small event or information to the entirety; arbitrary inference or assumption i.e., unrealistic, or false conclusions drawn from common appraisal or observation of a situation; emotional reasoning, i.e., the tendency of an individual to assume that their feelings always bring them the correct information; selective abstraction i.e., the ability of an individual to selectively pick and choose the negative from the greater picture ignoring all the positives; maximisation or magnification i.e., minor flaws or shortcomings of an individual or group are blown out of proportion; minimisation i.e., contributions and capabilities are minimised or ignored as if those aspects related to them are irrelevant; catastrophic thinking, i.e. the ability to jump on to the worst-case scenario triggered by a minor stimulus; and dichotomous thinking i.e., dividing individuals into absolute discrete categories (Navarro et al., 2013).

Rationale for this study

When medical professionals come across hatred, it generates several questions: where does it come from; does the word hatred always refer to the same meanings; are we born with it; is it manufactured or synthesised or created; and what reasons or factors contribute to its generation. Medical professionals, particularly mental health and forensic professionals, seek to explore the answers to questions like this. They are sometimes dealing with the client groups that require psychological formulations aimed at understanding the predisposition, presentation, precipitation, and perpetuation of various hateful activities and behaviours. They are expected to identify protective factors that can help understand and stop development of hatred. Hatred can manifest in the form of signs and symptoms of certain psychiatric conditions too, like depression, psychosis, phobias, or PTSD. Reverse causality also plays a role between hatred and mental health problems: is it hatred that leads to mental health problems or vise versa? Consider the example of hatred exhibited by those who are involved in terrorist activities. Mental health professionals are keen to understand whether terrorists are mentally unwell, thus, get involved in such activities, or they get involved in such activities and as a result become unwell. One purpose of this study is to test the observation whether the word hatred is used with a variety of meanings in medical literature or not. Another is to combine the knowledge that is acquired from the data regarding the generation of hatred.

Aims and objectives

To carry out systematic literature search on an international medical database to find what the emerging categories in which the word hatred is used in medical literature are, and to gather information regarding the generation of the emotion of hatred in human beings by thematically analysing the relevant collected data.

METHODS

To identify the information on hatred relevant for mental health professionals, we performed a systematic review using the following approach and criteria. We used the following strategies for literature identification and selection.

Literature search strategy

Research was carried out on PubMed database on National Library of Medicine (NCIB), to identify the studies containing words ‘hate’, ‘hatred’, ‘hateful’ or ‘hating’ within the title or abstract of the articles. We used the following search terms: hate [Title/Abstract]) OR (hatred [Title/Abstract])) OR (hateful [Title/Abstract]) OR (hating [Title/Abstract].

Eligibility criteria

All relevant medical studies that were available on Pub Med medical database on 14th Nov 2021.

Inclusion criteria

The included articles contained either of the words hate/hatred/hating/hateful in either title or abstract.

Exclusion criteria

There were no exclusion criteria.

Paper selection strategy

A total of 1193 studies were identified on 14th Nov 2021 utilising the above search terms. To keep the focus on the current relevance of generation of hatred, papers from 2015 to 2021 (as appearing on PubMed library on 14th November 2021) containing any of the four words (Hate, Hatred, Hateful, Hating) either in the title or the abstract were selected for the review. This led to the selection of 500 of the most recent studies on PubMed as appearing on NCIB (National Center for Biotechnology Information) library.

Data extraction

Titles and abstracts of the identified five hundred studies were reviewed by the author and imported to NVivo (qualitative data analysis software) version-10 for data interpretation and an endnote diary of references was kept. After removing duplicates, 470 studies were included in the review. They were categorized, and selected papers were submitted to thematic analyses.

Data items and synthesis of results

Following the title and abstract review, each study out of the 470 was categorised according the 10 content themes to understand different aspects of the use of word `hatred´ in medical literature. Data was then extracted from 113 studies that qualified for the emerging category of ‘generation of hatred’ after full text review. With the intention to carry out a thematic analysis aimed at understanding the generation of hatred, each of the 113 studies was given a code with the aim to understand the generation of hatred. The common codes were combined under one theme. The details of emerging themes are discussed within the results sections of this paper.

Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a method of interpreting qualitative data. According to Braun and Clarke (2006) thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data. It minimally organizes and describes the data set in rich detail. Sometimes it may go deeper and attempt to interpret multiple aspects of the topic being researched ( Boyatzis et al, 1998 ) . According to Braun and Clarke, a theme captures something important about the data in relation to the research question and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within a data set. Overall, the thematic analysis aims to find the repeated pattern of themes that can be clustered together, and the final product must contain an account of what was done and why.

RESULTS

Outcome of Literature search and eligibility assessment

To organise the papers we followed the Prisma flow diagram. The diagram shows our selection process.

To find that in which context the words hate/hatred/hateful/hating were used and what medical researchers were aiming to explore, the following ten categories emerged (table 1).

In all ten identified categories, a record was kept of the titles of the studies with relevant references and of the context in which the word/s were used within the title or abstract.

The table provides the results of the eligibility assessment for the subject generation of hatred. Only those 113 studies that focused on the generation of hatred were used for further analysis and discussion. The sum total of studies in this table is 488. This is due to some studies being included under more than one category.

According to the eligibility assessment, the following categories were not included in the main analyses of the generation of hatred. The categories are explained to reveal their differences from the main subject of the study i.e. generation of hatred.

Literal meaning of the word

79 studies were identified as using the word hate or hatred in literal meaning. For example, as used in the title of the study, “Salmonella and Reactive Oxygen Species~ A Love-Hate Relationship” ( Rhen, 2019).

In context of medical or psychiatric conditions

20 studies were identified as using the word hate or hatred as a symptom of a medical or psychiatric condition. For example, as used in the title of the study, “Confinement and the Hatred of Sound in Times of COVID-19: A Molotov Cocktail for People with Misophonia” ( Ferrer-Torres and Giménez-Llort, 2021).

Unique meanings

7 studies were identified as using the words hate/hatred in some unique sense that couldn’t be coded elsewhere. For example, in the abstract of the study, `Image-based Analysis of Emotional Facial Expressions in Full Face Transplants´, the authors described that they studied 6 emotional expressions in patient who underwent face transplant and one of them included hate ( Bedeloglu et al., 2018).

Word is used but not relevant to current investigation

6 studies were identified in which the words hate/hatred was used in a context considered to be irrelevant to the overall aim of the study. For example, the study titled, `Is there an association between surgeon hat type and 30-day wound events following ventral hernia repair?´ ( Haskins et al., 2017). The abstract contained the statement: Our findings suggest that surgical hate type may be chosen at the discretion of operating room personnel without fear of detriment to their patients. The word hate is a typo/misspelling here.

Used in keywords but not in title or abstract

25 studies were identified that contained one of the four words within the ‘keywords’ section but not in title or abstract of the study. They were not included in the overall interpretation.

Topic of a piece of writing

Two studies were identified in which authors discussed hate/hatred as commenting/discussing on someone else’s writings. For example, the title of one of the studies was, For ‘Physicians of the Soule’: The Roles of ‘Flight’ and ‘Hatred of Abomination’ in Thomas Wright’s The Passions of the Minde in Generall”. ( Firth-Godbehere, 2015).

Detection/assessment of hatred

130 studies were identified that discussed assessment and detection of hatred by various means. For example, in one study authors integrate social neuroscience findings with classic social psychology theories offering a framework to better understand how intergroup threat can lead to violence. The role of moral disengagement, dehumanization, and intergroup schadenfreude in this process are discussed, together with their underlying neural mechanisms ( Lantos and Molenberghs, 2021).

Addressing hatred

54 studies were identified that discussed the subject of addressing hatred. For example, in one study the author argued that within the Filipino psyche, the notion of ‘Kapwa’ or “shared self” can be an equivalent socio-normative ideal that can be utilized towards not just countering the ill-effects of social discrimination but also fostering deep communal and group solidarity among people, regardless of race, colour and ethnicity ( Macaraan, 2021).

Manifestation of hatred

52 studies qualified for the category of ‘manifestation of hatred’. For example, reported that individuals who self-injure often report doing so in order to punish the self or express self-hatred and self-criticism is associated with NSSI (Non suicidal self-injury). reported that hatred can manifest as hate crime including anti-Asian/anti-Chinese sentiments and increased discrimination due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. Choi’s paper is titled `People look at me like I AM the virus”: Fear, stigma, and discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic´. reported that hatred may manifest as homicide of lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transvestites, transexuals, and transgender people.

Further discussion below contains the details of the findings and of the emerging themes from thematic analysis that was carried out to understand the reasons for generation/development of hatred, the primary aim of this systematic review.

Generation of hatred

113 studies were identified that focused on exploring the generation of hatred. On reading the title and abstract it was noted that the authors in these studies primarily focused on understanding the reasons that lead to development of the hatred Whether the reasons are internal, to the hater, or external, that one is exposed to. What focus the hateful mind-set may take i.e. whether the focus is towards oneself, towards an object, towards an event or towards another person or group. To understand the pertinent information, full text reading of each article was carried out and the required information was collected in the form of a table that is available as (table 2).

Generation of Hatred

According to the information gained from analysis of these studies hatred is focused on some object/s. The victims of hatred may include the hater’s own self or others. The studies also throw light on the reasons that may lead to development of hatred. These reasons can be internal i.e., how a hater interprets the information/stimuli that may lead to the generation of hatred, or, external i.e., how factors influencing/interacting with the hater may lead to hatred. Below we present the themes under the respective headings.

Theme one: Targets of Hatred

Hatred can be directed inwards (self-hatred). It can be directed outwards for example directed towards other humans or towards inanimate objects.

Theme two: Self-hatred

We found that people can develop hatred towards their own selves due to the following reasons. The themes reported by medical researchers are mentioned in alphabetical order below.

Attraction towards minors

It can develop due to being attracted towards children [‘non-offending paedophiles’ or ‘minor attracted persons’] ( Stevens et al., 2019).

Drugs use and sex working

It can develop due to being in the hypothetical scenario of being infected with HIV/AIDS in future by sex workers who use drugs ( Lau et al., 2017).

Left behind children

Self-hatred, sadness, and fatigue can develop as part of depression in left-behind children ( Li et al., 2021).

Mental illness

It can develop due to depression, anxiety or stress ( Kotera et al., 2021).

It can develop due to depression with suicidal intent ( Borentain et al., 2020).

It can develop in those suffering from borderline personality disorder ( Mou et al., 2018)

Negative life experiences

It can develop in those who are exposed to negative experiences with parents and peer victimization ( Xavier et al., 2016)

Sexual abuse

It can develop due to being a victim of sexual abuse as a child ( Collin-Vézina et al., 2021).

Sexual abuse by sibling

It can develop in the victims of sexual abuse by their siblings ( Tener and Dafna, 2021).

Towards self-image

It can develop due to a distorted self-image ( Jalali-Farahani, 2021 ) that itself can have multiple causes, for example, eating disorder and self-criticism ( Mantilla, 2015 ) or bodyweight shame ( Carter et al., 2021).

Towards some aspect of self

Self-Hatred may be limited to one aspect of the self, for example, this may include hatred towards the habit of smoking ( Amato, 2021 ), proneness to crying ( Millings, 2016 ) or the word ‘obesity’ if the subject is obese ( Atkinson, 2016).

Theme three: Self-perceived hatred

Victims may perceive being hated, for example, experiencing self-perceived hatred due to acculturation stress ( Atteraya and Madhu, 2021 ; Iorga et al. 2020 and Shan et al., 2020).

Theme four: Hatred towards inanimate objects

According to these studies haters can develop hatred towards inanimate objects or events for several reasons. They are mentioned in alphabetical order below.

Brand

Hatred can develop towards business brands and market products ( Husnain, 2021 ) , ( Pantano and Eleonora, 2021).

Buildings

It can develop towards asylums [mad houses] ( Sidi and Leah, 2021).

Historic event

Kumar and Raman (2019) report that a permanent scar and hatred was created by the British empire when British colonial rule ended in India in 1947.

Machines

It can develop towards cars ( Tonetto et al, 2016).

Political bodies

It can develop towards political bodies ( Camparo et al., 2021).

Vegetables

It can develop towards vegetables as a dietary option ( Leak et al., 2017 ) , ( Tao et al, 2016) .

Theme five: Reasons for hating other humans

The studies highlight several reasons why haters develop hatred towards other people. The emerging themes are organised below in alphabetical order.

Academic performance

People may hate others on the basis of their academic performance ( Shan et al., 2020).

Addictions

People may be hated If they are addicted to a substance ( Horta and Ana, 2016).

Age

People may be hated if they belong to a certain age group ( Amato et al., 2021).

Care needs

People may be hated if they have specific care needs ( Atkinson et al., 2016).

Childhood related issues and events

Children may develop hatred towards others if they are left-behind in childhood by their parents ( Li et al., 2021 ) . If they have negative experiences with parents in childhood ( Xavier et al., 2016 ). Due to peer victimization in childhood ( Xavier et al., 2016 ) . Due to absence of positive memories with family in childhood ( Xavier et al., 2016 ). If they are sexually abused by a sibling ( Tener and Dafna, 2021 ). If they are born in an area where hate crime rate is high ( McNeeley et at., 2018 ). If their parents underwent a pathological divorce ( Bensussan, 2017 ).

Difference including class differences

People may be hated if they are different [prejudice towards difference] ( Cichocka et al., 2017 ) . If there is a history of class differences in a country ( Gadotti et al., 2021).

Gender, gender identity and sexual preference

People may be hated if they are females ( Hoskin and Rhea ,2020 ). If they are of a sexual or gender minority ( Lomash et al., 2019 ), ( Malta et al., 2019 ) , ( Mendelsohn et al., 2021 ) , ( Nadal and Kevin L, 2018 ). If they have specific sexual preferences ( Hoskin and Rhea, 2020 ). If they have their normal sexual preferences and practices but incels cannot find sexual partners for themselves ( Williams et al., 2021 ).

Immigration

People are hated, if they are immigrants ( Gheorghiu et al., 2021 ) or if they are refugees ( Álvarez and Fabian, 2020) .

Medical conditions

People may be hated if they are HIV positive ( Lau et al., 2017 ). If they are family members of someone with chronic medical conditions ( Chang et al., 2021 ). If they are a medical team who is looking after a patient who underwent a maternal near miss experience ( Torkmannejad et al., 2021).

Mothering and childbirth related

Mothers may develop hatred towards others if they are exposed to childbirth violence ( Taghizadeh et al., 2021 ). If they experienced a maternal near miss experience ( Torkmannejad et al., 2021) .

Online activity

People may develop hatred towards others if they are exposed to sensitive news stories on social media ( Salminen et al., 2020 ). If they are exposed to cyberbullying ( Selkie et al., 2016 ) . If they spend extended durations of time online ( Tynes et al., 2016 ). If they practice traditional and online racial discrimination ( Tynes et al., 2016 ). When people observe hostility and intolerance to conversations that are related to social injustice ( Martin et al., 2020 ). When online bot activity leads to the generation of hatred ( Uyheng and Carley, 2020 ). If people are exposed to social psychopathologies such as dissociation and perversion ( Gadotti et al., 2021 ). If people are observers of benign online disinhibition ( Harriman et al., 2020 ). If people have access to irrelevant online negative information about politicians or political bodies ( Lammers et al., 2021 ) . Due to the spread of negative information online [real or fictitious] ( Camparo et al., 2021 ). If people are exposed to post-truth politics, fake news, and alternative facts ( Speed et al., 2017 ) . By Spread of fake news on social media ( Speed and Russell, 2017 ). By misuse of social media in general ( Kadam et al., 2020 ) and by misuse of contemporary technologies on social media ( Tranchese et al., 2021 ) . When people get exposed to narratives online that fuel conspiracy theories ( Ferrara et al., 2020 ) due to social bot interference ( Uyheng et al., 2020 ) . If they are online hate bystanders for online hate perpetration ( Selkie et al., 2016 ) . If they witness online hate or they are exposed to toxic online disinhibition for online hate perpetration ( Wachs et al., 2018 ) . If they are communicating with a stranger on social media ( Harriman et al., 2020) .

Pandemic

Other people may be hated if they live in Wuhan (Hubei) where the COVID-19 pandemic emerged or if they live elsewhere in China, again for the same reason that COVID-19 pandemic emerged from there ( Xu et al., 2021).

If they are children or adult family members subjected to `stay at home restrictions´ due to the pandemic ( Babvey et al., 2021 ). If they are communities that are denser and more isolated from others during a pandemic ( Uyheng, and Kathleen, 2020 ) . If they already suffer from AIDS and develop COVID-19 ( Hall et al., 2021) . If haters are exposed to diffusion patterns of COVID-19 misinformation (Lu and Donna, 2020). If prolonged pandemic caused stigmatization/hatred against health care workers who are caring for patients ( Nishimura et al., 2021).

Race and ethnicity

People may be hated if they are a racial minority in the UK when it is undergoing a decision whether to remain part of the European Union or not ( Dalle et al., 2020 ) . If they are an ethnic minority in an area ( Bauer et al., 2018 ). If they are Black or Asian or multiple races or another non-White race ( Bianchi, 2018 ) . If they are Arabs ( Katzir et al., 2018 ). If they belong to a different race compared to majority in an area ( Tynes et al., 2016 ). Because of their regional identification ( Hackett et al., 2020 ) . If they are exposed to racial aggression ( Martinez-Cola et al., 2018 ) .

Religion, faith, and ideology

People may be hated if If they differ in ideology from the majority ( Bélanger, 2021 ). If they are Muslims ( Hackett et al., 2020 ). If they are non-Muslims ( Fanani et al., 2020 ) . If they are exposed to arsenic in the Ganges River ( Chakraborti et al., 2018 ) . If one’s faith is seen as societal threat ( Hackett et al., 2020).

If they are persuaded to hatred using grounds of [‘nature of situation’, the ‘authority appeal’, the ‘duty’, the ‘logical empirical’ and the ‘moral appeal’] ( Fanani et al., 2020 ) . If they are exposed to morally injurious events ( Schwartz, 2021).

Social issues

People may develop hatred if they are exposed to social prejudice ( Hoskin and Rhea, 2020 ) . If they are exposed to the practice of propagation of moral values oriented around group preservation [Prejudice] ( Hoover, 2021) .

Others

Other people may be hated if they were perpetrators of childhood physical or sexual abuse or both towards victim ( Collin-Vézina et al., 2021 ). If they are considered an outgroup for any reason ( Weisel et al., 2015 ) . If they have certain types of lifestyles or routine activities ( McNeeley et al., 2018 ) . If they exhibit social disorganisation ( McNeeley et al., 2018 ). If they are hypocrites ( Jordan et al., 2017 ) . If they are part of a community that carried out terrorist attacks ( Álvarez and Fabian, 2020). If they have been discussed in sensitive topics (Racism, Israel-Palestine or War and Conflict) on social media news stories ( Salminen et al., 2020 ). If they are politicians, influential or authority figures ( Camparo et al., 2021).

Figure 1. Shows the Prisma flow chart for the identification and selection of papers

If they are related to pornography ( Janin and Claude, 2015 ) . If they are a nation that historically has conflicts with another nation ( Wang et al., 2016 ). If they have specific dietary preferences ( Markowski and Kelly, 2018) .

If they are violent ( Blanco et al., 2020 ) . People may develop hatred if they are exposed to spread of populist rhetoric through humour ( Sakki and Jari, 2021 ) . If they are exposed to police brutality ( Martinez-Cola et al., 2018 ). If they are exposed to violence ( Babvey et al., 2021 ) . If they are exposed to economic downturn [recession] ( Bianchi et al., 2018 ) . If they are exposed to “othering practices” for example, deep-seated stereotyping of a group of people ( Li et al., 2021 ). If they are exposed to hate speech for any reason ( Mendelsohn et al., 2021 ) . If they are being physically or sexually abused by someone ( Tener and Dafna, 2021 ) . If they are stigmatised for any reason ( Xu et al., 2021).

Theme six: Internal reasons for development of hatred

The medical researchers found the following internal psychological, emotional and other relevant reasons that lead to development of hatred. They are described in alphabetical order below.

Attitudes

Ability to express emotions ( Tamir et al., 2017 )

Prejudice ( Hoover, 2021 )

Cognitions

Ideological obsession and perceived social injustice ( Bélanger and Jocelyn, 2021 ) .

Dehumanisation of the other person or group ( Kramer et al., 2021 ) , ( Mendelsohn et al., 2021 ), ( Simpson and Robert, 2015 ), ( Stern and Alexandra, 2021 )

Pathological worrying (Pace et al., 2018).

Learning following memory consolidation, reconsolidation, and repeated reinforcements or strengthening over time, resulting in a phenomenon called mental representation block ( Tobore and Tobore, 2021 ) .

Constant appraisal of body image or body weight ( Mantilla, and Andreas, 2015 ) .

Emotions

Because people want to experience it as a part of their emotions ( Tamir et al., 2017 ) .

Because someone/something generates disgust in hater. ( Matsumoto et al., 2017 )

Impulsivity and internalizing symptoms in case of online hate offending ( Kaakinen, 2020 ) .

Reliance on in-group stereotypes [i.e., selfstereotype] ( Kaakinen et al., 2020 ) .

Development of combination of emotions of anger, contempt, and disgust [ANCODI] ( Matsumoto et al., 2017 ) .

Feelings

Complete absence of love for someone or something ( Bisagni, 2020 ).

Having mixed feelings of love and hatred towards someone ( Perelberg and Rosine, 2016 ) .

Having stronger feelings of love in the past towards the one who is hated ( Jin et al., 2017 ) .

Feeling emptiness inside ( Jaccard et al., 2021 ).

Because hate serves bookkeeping and commitment functions within relationships (Matthew and Daniel, 2017).

Depression ( Kotera et al., 2021 ) .

Heuristics

Access to dichotomising heuristics ( Kramer et al., 2021 ) .

Individual motivation

Individually motivated offenders including “news junkies,” “Bollywood fanatics,” and “lone-wolves” who do not characteristically engage in direct targeted attacks against a single person but express hatred towards women of influence on social media for example doing hateful Tweets [through the online platform called Twitter] ( Kumar, et al 2021 ) .

Perceptions

Perception of someone (whether self or others) as an excessive load/burden due to the care-needs that one has ( Horta and Ana, 2016 ) .

Because someone sends false signals to hater’s brain due to their hypocrisy. ( Jordan et al., 2017 )

Others

Oedipal-like hatred ( Wang et al., 2016 ) .

Identity saving ( Jaccard et al., 2021 ) .

Development of a digital reality that is different from true reality ( Kravis and Nathan, 2017 ).

Experiencing moral disengagement ( Blanco et al., 2020 ) .

DISCUSSION

I learnt that it is difficult to categorise the reasons for development of hatred in the form of any simplified categories. The above described organisation of results is data driven and it is one of the pragmatic ways in which I was able to present the findings. The major themes that were identified on thematic analysis of 113 studies included targets of hatred, reasons for development of self-hatred, self-perceived hatred, reasons of hatred towards other humans and internal reasons for development of hatred. Medical researchers all over the world are obviously working in varied environments, cultures, circumstances and have unique personal and academic interests. However, it appears that regardless of the circumstances or the background they all appreciate that hatred and hateful mind-sets exist and that efforts are needed to understand various aspects of hatred. From a medical and psychiatric point of view, they seem to make use of scientific approaches like psychological, psychopathological, neurological, neurobiological and physiological approaches etc. to understand the subject matter. Among targets of hatred, the medical researchers are keen to explore the reasons for self-hatred too. Exploration of self-hatred is useful especially in understanding its development in depressive illness that may lead to subsequent self-harm and even suicide. Hatred is also reported to have developed towards inanimate objects or historical events. It can be a person’s inner thoughts, feelings, emotions, interpretations, approaches or attitudes that can lead to the development of this mind-set. Or it can be external reasons, for example, the kind of environment, peer group, background, culture, economic situation or society that one is exposed to. One major reason that leads to the development of hatred that stands out across studies is the intolerance towards the difference that others may present with, namely, difference in race, in ethnicity, gender, sexual preferences, religion, ideology, regional background, status of illness, personal habits or age are some of the recurrent themes that are reported. With regards to environmental factors, and given the time of cross-sectional data collection, the importance of online/virtual environments and practices are highlighted across studies. During the COVID pandemic when real life contact was decreased and online virtual interactions increased significantly, researchers had the opportunity to study the patterns and behaviours that led to the development of hateful behaviours and mind-sets in the virtual world, especially on virtual social media platforms.

It appears that the findings of this review are in keeping with the findings that others have quoted on various platforms. For example the online website titled ‘Understanding and overcoming hate’ (https://www.overcominghateportal.org) offers a list of multiple categories and kinds of hatred. According to this website Every-Day Hate includes peer rejection, bullying, mocking, teasing, social exclusion and ostracism. Discriminative-Hate can be carried out on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, ethnicity, nationality, family heritage, socioeconomic status (class), regional location, party affiliation, looks, hair length, clothes, body type, disability, weight, and age. Hate on the basis of Dogmatic Beliefs (isms) is carried out on the grounds of ideologies, nationalism, exceptionalism, manifest destiny, fundamentalism, literalism, millennialism, and McCarthyism. Stereotyping (caricature) type hatred manifests as stigmatizing, scapegoating, attribution, or projection. Prejudice-Racism-Bigotry like hatred manifests as supremacy, aversive racism, and chauvinism. Xenophobia manifests as tribalism, anti-immigrant, nativitism and ethnocentrism. Hate Groups and Extremism  manifests as coercive cults, white supremacy groups, militia groups, neo-Nazi/far right, patriot movement, right wing populism, gun groups, jihadist revolutionaries and the John Birch society (American ultraconservative, far-right, radical right political advocacy group). There are a further five types of hatred that are classified under the common heading of social injustice. Among these manifestations of Institutional-Discrimination include disenfranchisement, segregation, eugenics, apartheid, forced sterilization, racial quotas, racial profiling, caste systems and state-sponsored pogroms. The manifestations of Collective-Rage include group-activated violence, (hazing, wilding, gang rape, riots), (lynch mobs; vigilante justice), (ethnic violence, hate crimes), mass hysteria leading to massacres (i.e., Rwanda Genocide, witch trials), terrorist acts, suicide bombings and witch hunts. The manifestation of Abuse of Power includes death squads, rebel and state-run paramilitary, mercenary violence, police brutality, secret police, rendition, denial of civil liberties and rights and torture. Oppression like hate manifests as autocratic authoritarian regimes, forced collectivization, fascism, theocracy, kleptocracy, oligarchy and plutocracy. And finally, the Extreme Cruelty on Mass Scale manifests as deliberate annihilation, atrocities, torture, eliminationism, massacres, human trafficking, war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.

Comparing the findings of this review with the categories appearing on the website it appears that medical researchers are reporting many of these forms and categories of hatred. However, there are some categories like self-hatred and self-perceived hatred that are not mentioned on other forums but are an area of special interest for medical/mental-health researches. I did not come across any contradictions in findings of this review to the findings on other forums, for example, in the above mentioned website. However for medical researchers the biological, psychological and social understandings of these matters appear more pertinent than understanding the political or historical aspects of the same. Nonetheless, it seems that medical researchers are neither oblivious nor blind towards the non-medical aspects that are sometimes an integral part of the bigger picture.

Multiplicity of meanings

I found that the medical researchers are interested in several aspects of exploring hatred and use the same word for numerous meanings. It is nearly impossible to summarise them under discrete types. However, the emerging categories following analysis of initial coding of all included studies provide an opportunity to broadly understand that when medical researchers use the word hatred, then what are they aiming for? To fully understand the meaning of the same word, the background, broader aim of the study and context of the discussion in which the word is used needs to be kept in mind. Without that, any conclusion drawn about the meaning of hatred may lead to a spurious outcome. This multiplicity of meaning finding agrees with numerous categories and kinds of hatred outlined on the website ‘Understanding and overcoming hate’. This systematic literature search provides the opportunity for us to appreciate a variety of opinions that have been incorporated into the data pool across a longer duration of time. On one hand, the opinions of individual authors can be understood in detail, and on the other, a broader viewpoint emerges by combining the acquired knowledge from individual studies.

Self-perceived hatred and Self-hatred

There were a couple of themes that were identified in medical literature and were not commonly reported in other sources. One of these themes was that of self-perceived hatred. For example, studies carried out by Atteraya et al., (2021) and Shan et al., (2020) on students belonging to a variety of nationalities and ethnic backgrounds reported that students can perceive hate and rejection in the new host culture that they join for their academic needs. This perception appears to be the part of acculturation stress that they experience. This is a unique theme that suggests that hatred is more like a mindset that people can develop towards how they perceive they are treated and what they internally consider what hatred is.

About fourteen authors talk about self-hatred that subjects experience for a variety of reasons. For example, some recurrent emerging themes for the generation of self-hatred are in the context of depressive illness and in the context of repeat self-appraisal of body image. However, other than that, there are some unique reasons for the development of self-hatred that are highlighted by this literature review. For example, ( 122) Stevens et al., (2019) described that non-offending paedophiles are a group of individuals that are attracted to children but nevertheless suppress their attraction. They are reported to develop self-hatred as a result of experiencing such feelings. In case of self-hatred in children, three articles, including those written by ( 106 ) Rhodes et al., (2017), Collin-Vézina et al., (2021) and ( 45 ) Gijzen et al., (2021), highlight that it is the childhood physical abuse, childhood sexual abuse and childhood depression that leads to its development. Childhood depression appears to be a recurrent emerging theme that may lead to development of self-hatred in children.

Hating others

Hating inanimate objects

It seems people can develop a hatred towards almost anything and anyone. This may include other objects and other people. The inanimate objects can be hated for various reasons for example, Tonetto et al., (2016), reported that people can develop hatred towards their cars after an appraisal. Whether it is one’s body image that is appraised, one’s own self that is appraised or if it is an inanimate possession, this negative appraisal reinforces the generation of hatred. Some children reported to have developed hatred towards vegetables as a dietary option, Leak et al., (2017).

Events that lead to hatred of others

Hatred tends to manifest following exposure to some important and usually stressful personal or social event. For example, one repeatedly reported event that led to the generation of hatred was the COVID-19 pandemic. Out of 59 studies that dealt with hatred towards others, 15 studies reported the development of hatred due to COVID-19 pandemic. One reason for this obviously is that the cross-sectional data was collected when the world was still going through the impact of COVID-19, and it was an area of interest for medical researchers at the time. However, at the same time the other aspect was that COVID-19 generated unprecedented stress, anxiety, vulnerability, scarcity of resources and increased competition to receive the required help and health care from shared common resources. For example, Erasmus reported that professionals carrying out critical care triage can possibly develop hate towards elderly patients when work stresses are increased due to extra work generated by a pandemic ( Erasmus, 2020 ) . Nishimura et al (2020) reported that the COVID-19 pandemic caused stigmatization and hatred against Health Care Workers (HCWs), which led to increased prevalence of burnout in them. Hall et al., (2021) described experiences of those AIDS (HIV positive) patients who tested positive for COVID-19 too, the majority regarding their HIV diagnosis as having a more profound impact on their lives compared to being affected by the pandemic but found similarities between COVID-19 stigma and HIV-related stigma. Other significant events reported by authors that led to the generation of hatred were the UK Brexit movement ( Dalle et al., 2020 ) and US presidential elections of 2016 ( Hackett et al., 2020).

Cognitions that contribute towards hatred

Nine articles reported on the role that cognitions play in the generation of hatred. For example, the role of Dehumanisation is discussed by four different authors in a variety of scenarios ( Kramer et al., 2021 ) ( Mendelsohn et al., 2021 ) ( Simpson and Robert 2015 ) and ( Stern and Alexandra, 2021 ). Nonetheless, in addition to that, medical researchers have reported some other cognitive patterns too that are related to hatred. For example. Bélanger (2021) reported that ideologically obsessed individuals are easily threatened by information that criticises their ideology, which in turn leads to hatred and violent retaliation. Tobore and Tobore (2021) described ‘Mental representation block’ (MRB). According to them, because of the brain’s energy efficiency evolutionary adaptations, all learning following memory consolidation, reconsolidation, and repeated reinforcements or strengthening over time, results in a phenomenon called MRB. The implications of this block include cognitive biases and hatred including homophobia, and transphobia.

Attitudes, emotions, and sentiments that contribute towards hatred

In addition to emotions, medical researchers are interested in exploring around attitudes, emotions, and sentiments too that lead to the generation of hatred. For example, ( 25 ) Cichocka et al (2017) described that after controlling for self-esteem, narcissistic self-evaluation was positively associated with the social dominance orientate, that leads to hatred of others. ( 44 ) et al (2021) reported that immigrants from low-status or poorer countries (Poland, India) are more likely to be perceived as encroaching on the majority group’s entitlements than those from high-status or richer countries (Germany, Australia). ( 54 ) Hoskin and Rhea (2020) reported that sources of oppression underlying many forms of violence today (e.g., anti-LGBTQ+ hate crimes, Incel attacks, sexual violence, transgender murders) are all symptoms of the same underlying social prejudice: femmephobia. ( 43 ) Gervais et al (2017) reported that sentiments are functional networks of attitudes and emotions. Distinct sentiments, including hate serve both bookkeeping and commitment functions within relationships.

Social issues that lead to development of hatred and collective hatred

Medical researchers are interested in exploring and understanding social reasons for development of hatred too. For example, Martin and Julia (2020) who are teachers, carried out a survey on students marching for social justice. They reported that issues of gender equality were of great concern to the marchers, in particular, issues related to economic and social equity for example including inequality of the salary among genders. Whilst exploring the reasons for the development of collective hatred, Sakki et al (2021) reported that it was the spread of populist rhetoric through humour that led to the mobilization of collective hatred, encouraging a sense of moral superiority in groups during the US presidential election campaign in 2016. Whilst exploring the group-hatred, Weisel et al (2015) reported that outgroup hate can play an important role towards development of group hatred, depending on the degree of enmity between the groups, whether it involves imposing negative externalities or denying positive externalities, and whether conflict is morality-based.

Psychoanalytic approaches towards understanding hatred

On the subject of hatred, medical researchers are interested in exploring the reasons for the generation of hatred employing psychodynamic and psychoanalytical approaches. Kravis and Nathan (2017) applied Kierkegaard’s concept of ‘levelling’ to the dynamics of envy, particularly as they come into play among psychoanalysts doing clinical analytic work. The `digital reality principle´ is introduced as a way of conceptualizing an aspect of the hatred of thinking and certain envious responses to distinction. In another example, through a detailed analysis of a clinical example, Perelberg and Rosine (2016) examines Bion’s distinction between hysterical hallucinations and psychotic hallucinations and formulates their own hypothesis about the distinctions between the two. Their paper suggests that whilst psychotic hallucinations express a conflict between life and death, hysterical hallucinations express the conflict between love and hate.

Role of online resources towards the generation of hatred

At least nine studies covered the role of a variety of online platforms that contribute to the development of hatred. It appears that the virtual world is unique in several ways making it distinct and sometimes a dangerous environment that may lead to the development of hatred. For example, Salminen et al (2020) carried out the classification of online news on a news channel and reported that hateful commenting, also known as ‘toxicity’, frequently takes place within news stories in social media when sensitive topics are discussed. Average toxicity of comments varies by topic. Selkie et al (2016) reported that most commonly witnessed online behaviours that lead to or manifest as cyberbullying included “posting degrading comments or hate speech” and “posting explicit or unwanted pictures”. According to Tynes et al (2016), the reasons for online hate activity, includes the amount of time spent online, traditional, and online racial discrimination, and adolescent adjustment (including depressive symptoms, anxiety, and externalizing behaviours). Uyheng, and Kathleen (2020) collected online conversations around the COVID-19 pandemic and reported that ‘Bot activity’ was linked to higher hate in the US and the Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of this review suggest that virtual world scenarios are equally capable of contributing towards the generation and spread of hatred as real-world ones.

Contributions from the current study

This study highlights that the systematic review of medical literature could be a good source to understand the variety of aspects of hatred. With the backdrop of existing knowledge, the current study brings a variety of approaches and opinions together that suggest that medical researchers are keen to understand ‘hatred’ from different perspectives and points of view. It appears that some are interested in understanding the internal reasons at the level of cognitions, attitudes, sentiments, and personalised meanings of the subjects that develop hatred, whilst others are keen to explore the external reasons that may lead to its development. The findings of the review suggest that various different forms of hatred surfaced, or some already existing manifestations of hatred intensified following some significant global events. In addition, this study also highlights the latest online (virtual) reasons that lead to the development of hatred that seem to have some similarities with real world patterns but with some uniqueness that are specific to online interactions only.

CONCLUSIONS

The word `hatred´ is used in medical literature in a multiplicity of meanings that range from using it in its literal sense to describe a subtle attitude such as a phobia-philia relationship, or to describe a unique outcome that is generated as an interplay of several different kind of factors. These may include cognitions, behaviours, social interactions, attitudes, sentiments, developmental backgrounds, psychodynamic interactions with others in real and virtual worlds etc. It may be ignored as another day-to-day attitude and paid little attention, for example, someone using the word hatred to describe the disliking of his car. However, on the other hand, it may manifest as negative expressions, for example of raging dehumanising contempt and disrespect that may be accompanied with extreme actions towards what is hated. It appears that hatred is more like a mind-set that people can develop towards themselves, towards others and towards inanimate objects or situations too. Fear, anger and disgust are primary emotions (that we are born with); human psyche is naturally prone to several inevitable cognitive errors; human thought is subjected to unavoidable logical fallacies; and human ego cannot avoid utilising unhealthy ego-defence mechanisms. Every child is born in a family and culture that has its own unique background and history. Therefore, it appears that we humans are prone to the generation of the hateful mindset as an unavoidable outcome in a variety of scenarios. It seems that depending on the background of the person or the group, their environment and circumstances and the intensity of the stress that one is exposed to, the generation of the hateful mind set will vary. There are several other factors that contribute towards its generation. Keeping these generational patterns in view, it would be reasonable to say that an early detection and addressing the early warning signs towards development of the hateful mind-set would be helpful for ourselves and for others. As the word is used in several different meanings, the background information, context and overall scenario of the discussion needs to be kept in mind whilst attempting to draw any meanings about the use of hate/hatred in a verbal or written expression. In each case where the word `hatred´ is used, needs to be approached with epistemic curiosity and in some instances, it may need detailed epistemic inquiry to fully comprehend the meaning of this word in any given expression. More similar kind of research would hopefully bring more insights into the subject with time.

LIMITATIONS

This literature review took a cross-sectional approach for data collection at a specific point in time. There are multiple studies that are added to the same data base ever since the information was collected for this study and during the course of data interpretation, write up and publication. Choosing from the most recently added studies from 2015 onwards in PubMed was initially to keep the focus on contemporaneous studies. However, it was realised after the initial data was collected that even older studies were added at Pub Med. As the data was already collected, I decided to mention this pitfall in the limitations section rather than changing the entire research strategy and carry out data collection again.

MOTIVATION AND DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to Mrs Talat Afzaal, my primary school (Divisional Public School Faisalabad, Pakistan) teacher who lost her life in a terrorist attack in London, Ontario, Canada on 6th June 2021. Mrs Afzaal was 72 years old. The motivation for this study came to reflect on the reasons that go through the mind of people who perform acts of hatred, like terrorism. The Canadian government immediately declared the incidence as an act of Islamophobia ( Jiwani, 2022 ). It appears that Mrs Afzaal and three of her family members were killed because of the attire that they were wearing. If Nathaniel Veltman had had the opportunity to meet Mrs. Afzaal, I am sure he would have appreciated that she was an unsuitable stereotyped candidate except for her attire. Following a road traffic accident and having undergone plastic surgery it was difficult for her to face the society with the scars on her face, though she never gave up fulfilling her professional responsibilities. In the early 1980s culture of Faisalabad (Pakistan), when a military dictator had imposed martial law rules restricting the freedom of women, it was not easy for a woman to work as a schoolteacher. It was difficult for any family to face the conservative community in that culture where the woman of the house works, and the family relies on her wage. She herself was educated, and she prepared her children to choose higher education. She was a disciplinarian and would insist on rules to be followed as an essential virtue whilst teaching us in the classroom. She was able to take the initiative in her sixties and embrace change to emigrate out of the country to a different culture. In order to understand more about the social circumstances that she was exposed to, I would refer to the life stories of Benazir Bhutto, ex-prime minister of Pakistan who herself was assassinated in a terror attack ( Bhutto, 2014 ) and Malala Yousufzai, the youngest Nobel Peace Prize holder of Pakistani origin who was shot in head in a terror attack for advocating in favour of education of young girls ( Yousafzai and McCormick, 2014 ). The narratives of these well-known Pakistani women frankly cover the problems and challenges that they faced in Pakistani society due to their gender. At one level, it feels that it is not only the murder of another Asian immigrant on the street, but it is also the murder of a dream of an independent, free, opinionated, and self-sufficient Pakistani woman; a privilege that she is largely denied in her parent culture. Mrs Afzaal apparently was striving to achieve this in her new host culture. It seems that her efforts to achieve independence and betterment in her quality of life and of her family’s continued to the end of her days. Goodbye Mrs. Afzaal.

DECLARATION

Acknowledgements: Thanks to my family members Maryam, Sachal and Zeest for providing me time to carry out this research work and for having informal discussions with me on the topic throughout the course of project.

Thanks to Numair Kaukab from The National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Faisalabad, Pakistan and Raheel Ahmed from University of Central Punjab Lahore, Pakistan for helping me at some stages of data collection.

Thanks to Prof. Dr. Reinhard Heun of ‘Global Psychiatry Archives’ for support during the write up and general guidance.

Thanks to Ms Gabby Nickson, Sue Clarke and all the staff members at Gosall library, Lantern Centre at Lancashire, and South Cumbria Foundation NHS Trust (LSCFT), Preston, UK for arranging some of the full text articles.

In addition, to the generation of hatred, data about manifestation, detection, assessment and addressing hatred was also collected as a part of same review but the results are not discussed here. There is a scope to present the manifestation, assessment and addressing hatred parts of this review in separate articles in future.

Conflict of interest: I do not identify any conflict of interest in this project.

Ethical approval: The research process did not involve any direct engagement with clients; hence, it didn’t require a formal ethical approval.

Funding: No financial support of any sort was sought throughout this research project.

Informed consent: As mentioned above, informed consent was not required.

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